Toxic chemicals are used and released all along the fashion supply chain from the production of the raw materials to the finishing of garments. These are enormous challenges to sustainability and to human and planetary wellbeing.
The toxic chemicals found in garments include, but are not limited to, flame retardants, lead, chromium, phthalates, chlorine bleach, and volatile organic chemicals such as formaldehyde. Most waterproof gear is made using PFAS, called “forever chemicals” for their persistence in our environment and our bodies.
The bleaching, dyeing, and finishing stage is a major hotspot in terms of carcinogenic toxicity. These chemicals are generally used to treat fabrics and give them certain properties. The long-term effects of many of these chemicals are still unknown. But formaldehyde is known to cause cancer, and phthalates can disrupt the body’s endocrine system, impacting metabolism and fertility.
The bleaching, dyeing, and finishing stage is a major hotspot in terms of carcinogenic toxicity
“Any product that is marketed with benefits such as anti-wrinkle, anti-crease, anti-moisture, anti-microbial would have been chemically treated,” says Alia Peer, creative director at POLO South Africa.
Dr Pardon Nyamukamba and Shamil Isaacs at Cape Peninsula University of Technology’s Technology Station: Clothing & Textiles warn that it is important to consider the issue of toxic chemicals holistically with all its implications. “If not monitored to comply with the recommended limits, they may cause skin irritation/sensitization and skin dermatitis and in extreme cases be carcinogenic,” they say.
The use of chemicals differs from fabric to fabric. Pardon and Shamil say that it depends on various factors such as the supplier and where it was manufactured (country of origin of the raw materials).
Who bears the burden?
Not only do these chemicals have consequences for the wearer, but there are also consequences for the planet, garment workers, and people living in communities near factories and dumps.
Last year, MNN Centre for Investigative Journalism – a non-profit journalism organisation in Lesotho – reported that the landlocked kingdom, which is known to be a global denim production hub for US export, is suffering the consequences of polluted waterways. There is an insufficient supply of drinkable water in towns and villages and yet denim factories use millions of litres of this drinkable water for denim production. Worse yet, the dye-coloured blue wastewater that emerges from the denim production is toxic and finds its way into natural streams and open spaces in nearby villages mixed in with human waste. Local communities and their livestock are dependent on these now-polluted waterways.
Blue wastewater that emerges from the denim production is toxic and finds its way into natural streams
In 2021, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation found elevated levels of lead, phthalates, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) — chemicals linked to health problems — in Shein clothing for children and adults, including pregnant people. In 2022, Greenpeace Germany reported on its results after testing 47 Shein products and found that “it’s the workers in Shein’s suppliers, the people in surrounding communities and the environment in China that bear the brunt of Shein’s hazardous chemical addiction.”
Shein is not a unique case. Patagonia, the poster-child of sustainable fashion, still uses PFAS. According to Bloomberg Green, Patagonia along with seven companies have announced plans to transition away from PFAS in the coming years.
Can natural fibres be toxic too?
Natural fibre fabrics get chemically treated too. As part of the manufacturing process, all fibres (both natural and synthetic) go through chemical treatments. This means even microfibres from natural fibres do not simply disappear into waterways and oceans.
Even microfibres from natural fibres do not simply disappear into waterways and oceans
Besides the chemicals during manufacturing and processing, there are chemicals applied during fibre production. Conventional cotton (non-organic) is grown using pesticides which linger in the finished product. Pesticides are well-known toxins and have been linked to health concerns including respiratory problems and even cancer.
Animal natural fibres are affected too. Various chemicals are applied to protect animals such as sheep and goats from diseases and used during the processing for cleaning the fibres, removing lanolin and preventing shrinkage.
Chemical treatment affects circularity (and end-of-life) and contributes to the pollution of soil and bodies of water – especially when dumped illegally or unethically such as the waste colonialism experienced in Ghana and Kenya.
Chemical treatment affects circularity (and end-of-life) and contributes to the pollution of soil and bodies of water
Ironically, The Or Foundation based in Ghana is currently using money from a $50 million Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) fund between fast fashion company Shein and The Or Foundation to conduct research into how waste colonialism and overconsumption are linked to the pollution of Ghana’s waterways. A big part of this research is the Agbetsi Living Water Swim which involves Yvette Tetteh, an athlete, creative, agribusiness entrepreneur and a Board Member of The Or Foundation, swimming 450km of Ghana’s Volta River from Buipe to Ada, or roughly 4-6 hours of swimming per day for a month, taking water samples and engaging communities along the way.
What will it take for fashion to become non-toxic?
Roadmap to Zero is an international organisation urging the fashion industry to eliminate harmful chemicals from its supply chain. The launch of their ZDHC Manufacturing Restricted Substance List (MRSL) which is a list of chemical substances banned from intentional use in the processing of textile materials, leather, rubber, foam, adhesives and trims used in textiles, apparel, and footwear industry. Intentional use means the substance used deliberately in a chemical product to achieve a desired look or functionality.
The ZDHC MRSL goes beyond the traditional approaches to chemical restrictions, which only apply to finished products – such as Restricted Substances Lists – and is focused on consumer safety. The MRSL approach also helps protect workers, local communities, and the environment from the possible impacts of harmful chemicals.
According to Fashion Revolution’s 2022 Transparency Index, only 32% of brands publish their Manufacturing Restricted Substances Lists (MRSL), which signals a commitment to restricting the usage of toxic chemicals and informs suppliers about what substances are prohibited in their raw material and product manufacturing processes. Only 27% of brands included in the Index disclosed a time-bound commitment to eliminate the use of hazardous chemicals.
“We need more active participation in getting big companies to sign off detox treaties and in policy-making for ethical supply chains,” says Sibabalwe Ndlwana, a natural dyer, weaving artist, and researcher based in South Africa.
We need more active participation in getting big companies to sign off detox treaties and in policy-making for ethical supply chains
Besides the generic Hazardous Substance Act no. 15 of 1973 which provides for the control of substances that pose health risks, there is no South African legislation against the use of harmful chemicals in clothing. Organisations such as the National Cleaner Production Centre based at the Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) have been advocating for greater consumer awareness and government action on this.
Outside of South Africa, visionary laws are emerging, hopefully setting a precedent for the rest of the world. The European Union’s REACH regulation holds manufacturers and importers to account by requiring them to gather information on the chemicals used in the products they are creating. They are required to register this information in a central database at the European Chemicals Agency.
“What will force South African clothing and textile companies to make a significant change to the way they view toxic chemicals, is when they want to export into Europe and USA and are confronted by the need to comply with these REACH laws,” says Pardon and Shamil.
What will force South African clothing and textile companies to make a significant change to the way they view toxic chemicals, is when they want to export into Europe and USA
There are also voluntary certifications, such as the OEKO-TEX Standard 100, which ensure that materials are free from a range of toxic chemicals and other harmful substances.
The fashion industry needs to look towards alternatives, such as new technologies and natural dyes. While natural dyes are considered eco-friendly since they are: renewable and bio-degradable; skin-friendly; and may also provide health benefits to the wearer, they are not without their challenges. “The reason why many fashion brands do not use natural dyes is that they are more expensive and don’t produce the levels of quality, colourfastness, and re-producibility as synthetic dyes,” say Pardon and Shamil. If widely used, the fashion system should be cautioned against putting undue pressure on land and biodiversity and instead utilise the by-products and wastes from agriculture and agro-processing industries as natural dyes.
Fortunately, intensive research is ongoing within research institutions, universities as well as private companies to find sustainable solutions say Pardon and Shamil. There are already many encouraging developments in technology such as new air dyeing technology, closed-loop systems and ozone bleaching.
Sibabalwe suggests more collaboration is necessary between industry practitioners, technicians and textile producers in finding solutions. “It will be a collaborative effort at every level to create fashion and textiles that are entirely safe, regenerative, diverse and eco-friendly throughout our value chains and system,” says Sibabalwe who wrote a Master’s thesis on using local plant-based pigments to develop a non-toxic alternative textile dye range.
While legislation and voluntary certifications are a start, we will need wide-reaching transparency, accountability, innovation and collaboration to take us out of the murky waters of fashion’s chemical trail.
Five most common toxic substances found in clothing in South Africa:
Pardon Nyamukamba and Shamil Isaacs from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology’s Technology Station for Clothing and Textiles say that the five most common toxic substances found in clothing in South Africa are:
- Organic solvents which are used in the production process and to clean machines. Some are hazardous when inhaled or when in contact with skin, for example, Benzene, methanol, and trichloroethylene.
- Surfactants (surface active agent) are used as wetting agents and emulsifiers, for example, alkyl phenol ethoxylates. These are endocrine disruptors which interfere with the hormone system of mammals.
- Water and dirt repellents are perfluorinated chemicals some of which are carcinogenic and can cause fertility problems.
- Dyes and pigments can contain heavy metals such as lead or cadmium and optical whiteners used in cotton. Between 60% and 70% of dyes used in the food and textiles industries are known as Azo dyes. Some Azo dyes are classified as carcinogens, which is why the European Union has decided to ban the use of all Azo dyes containing carcinogenic compounds.
- Plasticisers and phthalates are used to soften plastics, for example, when used to soften PVC in preparation for printing. The phthalates are not chemically bound to the PVC and can therefore leach.
- Cover image: Photo by cottonbro studio on Pexels